ludic/LANGUAGE.md

The Ludic Language — Reference

This documents the Ludic language as actually implemented by compiler/ludicc.c. Ludic is an AI-first, statically-typed, ahead-of-time compiled language for games: an ECS is built into the language, and programs compile straight to machine code.

program.ludic ──ludicc──▶ program.ll ──▶ program.o ──▶ native exe / shared lib   (LLVM IR; no C)

ludicc lowers Ludic to LLVM IR itself and links the result — see COMPILING.md for the pipeline, module/export, and cross-targets. There is one backend: no C is generated, compiled or linked at any point, and the runtime a program calls is itself written in Ludic.

Program structure

A program is one program block containing declarations:

# doc-check: skip — illustrative: elided import list
program Name {
  import ...        # pull declarations in from another file
  property ...     # data (per entity)
  struct ...        # a plain record, not tied to an entity
  model ...     # a named entity KIND (bundle of properties)
  const ...         # compile-time constants
  fn ...            # functions
  extern fn ...     # bind a C library symbol (FFI)
  handler ...        # behavior, grouped into phases
}

Multi-file programs (import)

# doc-check: skip — paths resolve only inside the repo
program ChronoRift {
  import "chronorift/world.ludic"    # path is relative to THIS file
  import "chronorift/combat.ludic"
}

An imported file is a fragment: bare declarations, no program wrapper. Its declarations are spliced into the importing program. Imports may appear inside the program block or before it, they may nest (a fragment may import fragments), and each resolved path is include-guarded, so importing the same file twice (even via different chains) pulls it in once. Diagnostics report the true file:

error: line 1: unknown type 'nope' for field Pos.x
  chronorift/world.ludic:1 | property Pos { x: nope = 0 }

Models (entity kinds)

An model names a kind of entity and the fixed set of properties it carries. It replaces the empty "tag property" idiom: identity is stored as one integer per entity, not a parallel boolean array.

# doc-check: skip — composite: declarations and statements together
property Pos   { x: int = 0, y: int = 0 }
property Stats { hp: int = 10 }

model Player { Pos, Stats }        # Player IS a kind, not a property
model Enemy  { Pos, Stats }

spawn Player { Pos { x: 5 } }           # attaches every listed property
                                        # (seeding field defaults), then overrides
for (p, s) in query [Pos, Stats, {Player}] { ... }   # {Player} filters by kind

Use {Name} (tag position) to filter a query by model — an model can't be bound to a variable since it has no fields of its own. Entity kind is part of the saved snapshot.

Text, fonts & images

The 5×7 bitmap text stays for zero-asset programs. For real typography, load a TrueType font and draw UTF-8:

let f = font_load("/Handler/Library/Fonts/Supplemental/Arial.ttf")
text_ttf(f, 20, 20, "Héllo — Καλημέρα — Привет", 0xffffff, 28)   # anti-aliased
let w = text_w(f, "measure me", 28)                              # pixel width

The runtime ships a from-scratch TrueType engine (sfnt tables, cmap 0/4/6/12, simple + composite glyf outlines, quadratic Béziers, supersampled AA) and a glyph cache — no external font library. Arbitrary-size PNGs load as images:

let panel = image_load("assets/ui/panel.png")
draw_9slice(panel, x, y, w, h, 10)     # stretch edges/center, keep 10px corners
draw_image_scaled(icon, x, y, 32, 32)

Retained UI (ui)

UI is declared as data — a widget tree. The engine owns layout (stacked panels with padding / gap / alignment / grow), drawing (9-slice skins, images, TrueType text, focus highlight) and keyboard focus + activation.

ui MainMenu {
  panel id: Root w: 288 pad: 16 gap: 6 skin: "assets/ui/panel.png" inset: 10 align: center {
    label  text: "CHRONO RIFT" font: reg(R_FONT) size: 26 fg: 0xffe060 align: center
    button id: NewGame text: "New Game" font: reg(R_FONT) size: 16 w: 236
    button id: Quit    text: "Quit"     font: reg(R_FONT) size: 16 w: 236
  }
}

Widget types: panel (container + optional skin/bg/border), col / row (pure stacks), label, button (focusable), image, spacer. Props are evaluated at build time, so font: reg(R_FONT) reads a value the program set first. Each id: Name mints a UI_Name handle (the ui block name too), used from handlers:

handler Boot phase Start {
  setreg(R_FONT, font_load("…Arial.ttf"))
  ui_build()                 # construct the tree (loads skins/images)
  ui_open(UI_MainMenu)       # make it active, focus the first button
}
handler Nav phase Update {
  ui_tick(key())             # w/s move focus, space/enter activate
  if ui_clicked(UI_Quit) { quit() }
  ui_set_int(UI_HpLabel, hp)  # poke dynamic values by id
}
handler Draw phase Render { clear(0x0e0e16); ui_render(); present() }

See examples/menu.ludic for a complete title screen.

Types

Type	Meaning	LLVM IR type
int	32-bit integer	i32
fixed	Q16.16 fixed-point	i32
bool	boolean	i32
entity	entity handle	i32
str	string literal	ptr
ptr	raw address (runtime/FFI)	ptr

Numeric literals: 42 and 0x1affff are int; a literal with a decimal point (1.5) is fixed. Arithmetic on two fixed values lowers to fxmul/fxdiv; mixing int and fixed promotes the int. Convert with fx(i) (int→fixed) and flr(f) (fixed→int).

Properties, entities, queries

# doc-check: skip — composite: declarations and statements together
property Pos { x: int = 0, y: int = 0 }   # typed fields with defaults
property Player { }                        # a tag (no fields)

spawn Hero {                                # create an entity
  Pos    { x: 10, y: 5 }
  Player { }
}
despawn self()                              # remove the current entity

# iterate every entity that has all listed properties:
for (p) in query [Pos, {Player}] { p.x = p.x + 1 }   # {Tag} filters, doesn't bind
for (a, b) in query [Pos, Vel] where a.x > 0 { ... }  # one var per non-tag term

Entities are integer handles; property storage and slot reuse are generated per program. self() yields the entity of the innermost query loop.

Handlers & phases

handler Move @deterministic
  reads  [Vel]          # declared data access (parsed and reserved; not yet
  writes [Pos]          # consumed by any analysis pass — see "Not yet implemented")
  phase  FixedUpdate
  query  (p, v) [Pos, Vel]      # the entities this handler operates on
{ p.x = p.x + v.dx }

Phases run in this order every frame: Start (once at boot), then each frame Input → FixedUpdate → Update → LateUpdate → Render. @edge in front of a handler marks one that touches the outside world.

Declaration modifiers are @annotations written in front of the declaration — @export fn … (a C-ABI-exported function), @edge handler …, @deterministic, @pure. They parse into one uniform channel rather than a set of prefix keywords. (@export sets the export flag; the others parse but have no codegen effect in the self-hosted compiler yet.)

The query clause

A handler declares the entities it works on, alongside its phase. The body then runs once per matching entity, with the properties bound and self() giving that entity — the query header is simply hoisted out of the body into the signature:

handler CleanBattle phase LateUpdate
  query (b, p) [Battle, Pos, {Enemy}] where b.hp <= 0
{ despawn self() }

is the same program as

handler CleanBattle phase LateUpdate {
  for (b, p) in query [Battle, Pos, {Enemy}] where b.hp <= 0 { despawn self() }
}

Drop (vars) when nothing binds: query [{Enemy}]. A handler declares at most one query, and the number of variables must equal the number of binding terms ({Tag} terms filter without binding, so they don't count). A handler with no query clause runs once per tick, as before.

Conditions

A query selects on more than which properties an entity has. where is an ordinary expression evaluated with the bindings in scope, so entities can be matched on their field values:

# doc-check: skip — a bare handler clause, not a whole declaration
  query (b, s) [Battle, Stats] where b.hp <= 0 and s.level > 3

The same where works on an inline for (…) in query […].

where is evaluated per candidate entity, so it is the wrong place for a guard that concerns the whole handler (where reg(R_MODE) != 1 would re-read the register for every entity). Keep whole-handler guards in the body of a handler with no query clause, wrapping an inline query — as CleanBattle does in examples/chronorift/combat.ludic.

Matching is lazy, not snapshotted

Both forms iterate entities by id and re-check the match as they reach each one; there is no per-tick array of matched entities. Consequences worth knowing:

• despawn of the current entity, or of one already visited, is safe.
• An entity spawned during the loop at a higher id is visited in the same tick. Spawn into a later phase if you don't want that.

Annotations

Declarations carry @annotations in front of them — @export, @edge, @pure, @deterministic — one uniform channel rather than a set of prefix keywords. Two annotations replace a clause with a decorator.

@Queries — a handler's query as a decorator. Instead of the query (v) […] clause, a handler annotates its query, with each property's constraints written inline and the model given as on::

# doc-check: skip — composite: a handler plus its property/model declarations
property Transform { x: int = 0, scale: int = 1 }
property Velocity  { dx: int = 0, dy: int = 0 }
model Actor { Transform, Velocity }

@Queries(these: [Transform{scale > 0}, Velocity{dx > 0 or dy > 0}], on: Actor)
handler Move phase Update {
  Transform.x = Transform.x + Velocity.dx      # each property is bound by its name
}

It desugars to the ordinary loop

# doc-check: skip — the desugaring of the @Queries above
for (Transform, Velocity) in query [Transform, Velocity, {Actor}]
    where Transform.scale > 0 and (Velocity.dx > 0 or Velocity.dy > 0) { … }

— each listed property becomes a binding named after itself, a Prop{constraint} block reads its bare names as fields of Prop, and on: Model adds a {Model} tag filter. The body runs once per matching entity.

@Handles — the handlers a program drives. Written in front of the program, @Handles(Move) names the handlers it uses. It parses and reads as documentation; every declared handler still runs (registration is implicit).

See examples/annotations.ludic.

Structs, arrays and slices

struct is the aggregate that is not tied to an entity — a plain record, for the data a program keeps outside the ECS.

struct Tok { kind: int = 0, line: int = 0, next: Tok }

handler Lex phase Update {
  let t = new Tok        # allocates; every field seeded from its default
  t.kind = 1
}

Struct values have reference semantics: a struct value is a pointer to the object, so assigning or passing one shares it rather than copying.

struct Tok { kind: int = 0, line: int = 0, next: Tok }

fn bump(t: Tok) -> void { t.kind = t.kind + 1 }

handler Share phase Update {
  let a = new Tok
  let b = a              # b and a are the SAME object
  b.kind = 9
  print_int(a.kind)      # 9
  bump(a)                # the mutation is visible to the caller
  print_int(a.kind)      # 10
}

Fields chain, so a struct can refer to its own type and be walked without temporaries — which is what an AST or a linked list needs:

handler Walk phase Update {
  let a = new Tok
  let b = new Tok
  a.next = b
  print_int(a.next.kind)
  a.next.kind = 42       # chains on the left of an assignment too
}

Two array forms. []T is the growable slice (below) and is implemented. [T; N] is a fixed array — stored inline and zeroed — and is a design target: the self-hosted compiler's ptype parses []T but not [T; N] yet, so the snippet below does not compile today. Programs use []T slices for now.

# doc-check: skip — [T; N] fixed arrays are not yet implemented (design target)
var table: [int; 8]      # module-level storage
handler S phase Update {
  let buf: [int; 4]      # a local; no initializer needed
  buf[0] = 10
  table[2] = buf[0]
}

[]T is a growable slice — a pointer to a header holding data, length and capacity. push appends, doubling the storage when it is full; because the header never moves, an append is visible to everything holding that slice.

handler Collect phase Update {
  let toks = new []Tok
  push(toks, new Tok)
  for i in 0 .. len(toks) { print_int(toks[i].kind) }
}

Indexing works as both a value and an assignment target, and composes with fields: toks[i].kind = T_ID is a single address computation.

Functions & FFI

fn heal(amount: int) -> int { return amount * 2 }

extern fn c_hypot(a: fixed, b: fixed) -> fixed = "hypot_fx"   # bind a C symbol

extern fn … = "symbol" declares a foreign function and binds it to a symbol resolved at link time; pass -L/-l to ludicc to link its library. This is how Ludic calls anything with a C ABI — including a shared library built from another .ludic file (see examples/lib/).

Statements

let x = expr · x = expr (+= -= *= /=) · if/else · when cond { } (if-without-else) · while cond { } · for i in a .. b { } (numeric range) · for (…) in query […] { } · break · continue · return · spawn · despawn · match · machine.

Statements are separated by a newline or ; (both lex to the same separator token). Two statements may not sit adjacent with only spaces between them — the compiler reports expected newline or ';' between statements. Write one statement per line, or, to pack several onto a line, separate them with ;:

# doc-check: skip — a bare statement block, not a whole declaration
let x = 1
x = x + 1                     # one per line, the usual form
let y = 1; y = y + 1          # or `;`-separated on one line

break and continue apply to the innermost enclosing loop, and work in all three loop forms — while, the numeric for, and the ECS query loop, where continue advances to the next matching entity. Using either outside a loop is a compile error.

Pattern matching & state machines

match replaces if-ladders on one value. Arms list one or more literal patterns (or _ for the default) and a body:

match tile {
  'T', '#' => return SPR_TREE       # multiple patterns per arm
  'D'      => return SPR_DOOR
  _        => return SPR_GRASS      # optional default
}

machine turns a register into an explicit state machine: it dispatches on the register's value to the matching state, and become transitions to a named state (no more if phase == N chains). See the co-op battle in examples/chronorift/combat.ludic:

# doc-check: skip — illustrative: elided bodies
machine R_PHASE {
  state KnightMenu { … if is_confirm(k) { …attack…  become KnightResolve } }
  state KnightResolve { … become MageMenu }
  state EnemyTurn { … become KnightMenu }
}

States number themselves by declaration order (KnightMenu is 0, KnightResolve is 1, …) — no magic constants. (An explicit state Name = expr is still accepted when a state needs a specific value.) A machine <reg> reads reg(<reg>) to pick the state; become Name compiles to setreg(<reg>, <Name's value>). Both lower to plain branches (and match runs on the native LLVM backend too).

Enums

enum names a set of related integer values so a magic-number space — a menu selection, a mode, a machine state — reads as names instead of literals:

# doc-check: skip — composite: a declaration plus its uses
enum Action { Attack, Guard, Item, Flee }        # Attack = 0, Guard = 1, …

match reg(R_CUR) { Action.Attack => attack()  Action.Guard => guard()  _ => wait() }
if reg(R_MODE) == Mode.Battle { … }

A variant is a compile-time int accessed as Enum.Variant (Action.Guard is 1), numbered from 0 by declaration order, so it works anywhere an int does — match patterns, comparisons, setreg. Enums are a naming layer over int: there is no distinct enum runtime type yet, so an enum value lives in an ordinary int or register (and is saved with it). See examples/chronorift/combat.ludic, whose battle menus dispatch on KnightAct/MageAct instead of 0..3.

Expressions

Precedence: or → and → compar(< <= > >= == !=) → + - → * / % → unary(- not) → postfix(. () ). Operators are built-in only (no overloading). The boolean operators are spelled and / or / not; && and || are not Ludic operators and ! are rejected with a diagnostic naming the fix (!= is unaffected). Bitwise operations are functions (band, bor, bxor, bnot, shl, shr), so the symbols are free — which is why there is only one spelling to remember. expr with { field: … } is not implemented; records appear only in spawn. Char literals ('w') are int code points; colors are hex ints (0xff8800).

Builtins (the standard library / runtime surface)

# math      min max abs clamp                       (int)
# rng       seed(i)  rng_range(lo,hi)->int  rng_chance(pct)->bool   (deterministic)
# fixed     fx(i)->fixed   flr(f)->int
# tilemap   map_size(w,h)  map_row(y,str)  tile(x,y)->int
# 2D draw   clear(color)  fill_rect(x,y,w,h,color)  frame_rect(...)  put_px(x,y,color)
#           draw_sprite(id,x,y)  draw_sprite_scaled(id,x,y,scale)  present()
# text      text(x,y,str,color,scale)  text_int(x,y,n,color,scale)   (5x7 bitmap)
# fonts     font_load(path)->id                                       (TrueType .ttf/.ttc)
#           text_ttf(font,x,y,utf8,color,px)  text_w(font,utf8,px)->int  text_h(font,px)->int
# images    image_load(path)->id   draw_image(id,x,y)   draw_image_scaled(id,x,y,w,h)
#           draw_9slice(id,x,y,w,h,inset)
# UI        ui_build()  ui_open(id)  ui_tick(key)  ui_render()
#           ui_clicked(id)->bool  ui_set_text(id,str)  ui_set_int(id,n)
#           ui_focus(id)  ui_focused()->int  ui_visible(id,bool)
# assets    load_png(path)->id           (decodes a PNG; returns a 16x16 sprite id)
# input     key()->int                   (current frame's key code, 0 if none)
# state     reg(i)->int   setreg(i,v)     (64 integer resources shared by handlers)
# entity    self()->entity
# save      save()   load()->bool         (binary snapshot of the whole ECS World)
# control   quit()   print_int(i)
# process   os_argc()->int   os_arg(i)->str        (the command line; argv[0] included)
#           file_stderr()->ptr                     (a handle for file_write, off stdout)

Tooling

ludicc app.ludic -o build/app         # native binary (windowed for a game)
ludicc app.ludic --headless -o app       # headless build (renders out.ppm; reads stdin)
ludicc app.ludic --emit-llvm -o app.ll   # stop at LLVM IR
ludic  app.ludic                       # compile AND run (forwards the exit code)

ludicc (compile) and ludic (compile-and-run) are one multi-call binary built by ./build-cli.sh. COMPILING.md is the authoritative CLI reference — the full flag set (-o, --windowed, --headless, --emit-llvm, --save-temps, --run), the LUDIC_HOME / LUDIC_CC environment variables, and the IR-to-stdout bootstrap contract (no -o, invoked as ludicc) that build.sh / reseed.sh rely on. The default mode is auto: a file with handlers links windowed, otherwise headless; an explicit flag always wins.

The retired C driver's --shared, --fmt, -c, cross-compile (--target) and wasm modes are not on the self-hosted toolchain (see "Not yet implemented"). Source formatting now lives in the standalone build/ludic-fmt (below), not a compiler flag.

The self-hosted compiler is intentionally permissive: it has no separate validation pass yet, so unknown types lower to ptr and call arity is not checked. Diagnostics are limited to parse-level errors (ludicc(self): parse error: …); richer static checks (unknown identifiers, duplicate types, unknown fields, arity) are future work.

Editors

./tools/build-tools.sh                 # -> build/ludic-fmt, build/ludic-lsp
build/ludic-fmt -w src/               # format in place (keeps comments)
build/ludic-fmt --check .             # CI: exit 1 if anything is unformatted
build/ludic-lsp --stdio               # the language server, for any editor

ludic-fmt is the source formatter: it works on tokens, so comments and blank lines survive and no file is ever rewritten into another. ludic-lsp speaks LSP 3.17 and supplies completion, diagnostics, hover, go-to-definition, find-usages, rename, formatting, outlines, folding and inlay hints — the same binary for every editor. Both also understand ```ludic fences inside Markdown, so documentation gets the same highlighting and checking as source.

Plugins for VS Code and JetBrains IDEs, plus configuration for Neovim, Helix, Emacs, Sublime and Zed, are in tools/editors/ — see tools/editors/README.md.

Working programs

• examples/chronorift.ludic — a co-op JRPG (overworld, dungeon, boss, shop, save) using CC0 Kenney sprites. Split across chronorift/*.ludic via import, built on models.
• examples/menu.ludic — a retained-UI title screen (9-slice panel, TrueType labels, focusable buttons).
• examples/snake.ludic — Snake, no assets — same compiler, proving generality.

./build.sh examples/snake.ludic && ./build/snake

Not yet implemented

Units on quantities (9.8 m/s^2), with record-update expressions, a bytecode VM + hot-reload, and the live agent bridge — these appear in the design docs but are future work.

• scene / layer / on enter / on exit — the state-machine-over-scenes sugar is documented above but not parsed by the self-hosted compiler yet.
• reads / writes clauses — parsed and reserved on the handler node, but no analysis pass consumes them.
• [T; N] fixed arrays — documented above, but ptype parses only []T slices; fixed inline arrays are not accepted yet. Use []T slices.
• CLI: --shared, --fmt, and the wasm/cross target — these were features of the retired C driver; the self-hosted ludicc does not carry them (source formatting lives in build/ludic-fmt instead). Output-path and IR flags are in flux as the CLI front-end is rebuilt — check ludicc usage for the current set.

struct and array types, break/continue, and argv/stderr — once listed here as near-term — are now implemented and self-hosting; their lowerings are in BOOTSTRAP.md §4.

Scenes & layers

⚠️ Not yet implemented in the current (self-hosted) compiler. scene, layer, and the on enter / on exit hooks are a design target: the compiler has no scene declaration and examples/scenes.ludic does not compile today (enter Name parses only as a become alias). Games that need mutually-exclusive states use a mode register (reg/setreg) with a machine, as examples/chronorift does. This section describes the intended syntax for when scene support lands.

A program is usually several mutually-exclusive states — a title screen, the overworld, a battle — and the usual way to write that is a mode register consulted at the top of every handler. scene makes it structure instead:

# doc-check: skip — illustrative: elided bodies
scene Title start {
  on enter { ui_open(UI_Menu) }
  on exit  { ui_visible(UI_Menu, 0) }

  layer Main {
    handler Choose phase Update {
      if ui_clicked(UI_NewGame) { enter Overworld }
    }
  }
}

scene Overworld {
  on enter { spawn_party() }

  layer World { handler Move phase Update { … } }
  layer Hud   { handler Draw phase Render { … } }
}

• Exactly one scene is active. The one marked start runs first (or the first declared, if none is marked).
• A scene's handlers only run while it is active. Handlers declared outside any scene are global and run every frame regardless.
• Layers group handlers and declaration order is draw order: within a phase, global handlers run first, then the active scene's layers in the order they were written — so Hud's Render paints over World's.
• on enter / on exit are lifecycle hooks, not phases. Scene setup goes in on enter; a layer handler may not use phase Start.
• enter Name transitions: the current scene's on exit runs, the active scene becomes Name, and its on enter runs. Inside a layer handler the compiler knows which scene is leaving, so a transition costs two direct calls and a store — there is no dispatch table.

examples/scenes.ludic is a runnable demonstration of the ordering rules.

Queries in a handler signature

When a handler's whole body is one query loop, the loop header can move into the declaration:

handler CleanBattle phase LateUpdate
  query (b, p) [Battle, Pos, {Foe}] where b.hp <= 0
{
  despawn self()
}

This is exactly equivalent to wrapping the body in for (b, p) in query [Battle, Pos, {Foe}] where b.hp <= 0 { … } — same lowering, same semantics. The body runs once per matching entity and self() is that entity.

Mutation during iteration follows the same rules as an inline query, because it is the same loop: entities are visited by ascending id, despawn of the current or an already-visited entity is safe, and an entity spawned mid-loop at a higher id is visited in the same tick. If you need the tick's matches frozen, collect them yourself.